WordPress Bb Theme

Friday, October 26th, 2007 at 11:06 am

wordpress bb theme

Alcoholism

Classification
Alcohol and Health
Short term effects of alcohol
In the long term effects of alcohol
Alcohol and cardiovascular disease
Alcoholic liver disease
Alcoholic hepatitis
Alcohol and cancer
Alcohol and weight
Alcohol Syndrome fetal
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder
Alcoholism
Blackout (alcohol related amnesia)
Wernicke-Korsakoff
We recommend a maximum of admission
Wine and health
The definitions of terms related to alcoholism and vary significantly between the medical community, programs treatment, and the general public.
Medical definitions
The National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence and the American Society of Addiction Medicine defines alcoholism as "a primary disease, chronic and characterized by impaired control over drinking, concerns about the drug alcohol, use of alcohol despite adverse consequences, and distortions in thinking. "The DSM-IV (Diagnostic Manual dominant in psychiatry and psychology) defines alcohol abuse as repeated use despite recurrent adverse consequences. It further defines alcohol dependence as alcohol abuse combined with tolerance, withdrawal, and an uncontrollable urge to drink. (See DSM diagnosis below.) Within psychology and psychiatry, alcoholism is the popular term for alcohol dependence.
Terminology
Many terms are applied to the relationship of a drinker of alcohol. Use, misuse, heavy use, abuse, addiction and dependence are all common tags used to describe drinking habits, but the real meaning of these words can vary greatly depending on the context in which they are used. Even within the medical field, the definition may vary between areas of specialization. Because alcoholism is often used in a pejorative sense of politics and religion, the meaning of the words surrounding it are often used imprecisely.
Use refers to simple use of a substance. A person who drinks an alcoholic beverages is the use of alcohol. Misuse or problematic use, abuse and heavy use refers to alcohol abuse can cause physical damage, social or moral to the drinker.
Moderate use is defined by the Dietary Guidelines for Americans as no more than two alcoholic drinks per day for men and no more than one alcoholic drink per day for women.
Risk factors
About 40 percent of those who begin drinking before age 14 develop alcohol dependence, while only 10 percent of those who begin drinking until age 20 years developed an alcohol problem in adulthood, although there bear in mind that correlation does not imply causation. Alcohol abuse during adolescence can lead to long-term changes in the brain that leaves an increased risk of alcoholism In recent years, genetic factors also influence the age at onset of alcohol and risk of alcoholism.
The age of first use of alcohol, and genetic factors are associated with an increased risk of developing alcoholism. People who have a preexisting vulnerability to alcoholism are also more likely to start drinking earlier than average. The risk behaviors associated with adolescence promotes excessive consumption of alcohol. Age and genetic factors influence the risk of developing alcohol-related neurotoxicity. The genetic traits that influence the risk of developing alcoholism is associated with a family history of alcoholism. An article published has found that drinking at an early age can directly influence the risk themselves for developing alcoholism through influence the expression of genes that increase the risk of alcohol dependence. It has been hypothesized that this increased risk may be due to the high sensitivity of the adolescent brain development that leads to modulation of the genetic status of the brain that in turn prepares the adolescent for the increased risk of alcohol dependence. About 40 percent of alcoholics drank too late adolescence. Most alcoholics develop alcoholism during adolescence or early adulthood. Severe childhood trauma is also associated with an increased risk of alcohol or other drug problems. There is evidence that a complex mix of genetic and environmental factors, such as childhood events stress, influence the risk of developing alcoholism. The genes that influence alcohol metabolism also influence the risk of alcoholism. Good mother and family support is associated with a lower risk of developing alcoholism.
Signs and symptoms
Effects of alcohol abuse long term
Main article: Effects long term alcohol
The most significant potential long-term effects of ethanol. In addition, pregnant women, causes fetal alcohol syndrome.
The main effect of alcoholism is to encourage the victim to drink at times and in amounts that are harmful to physical health. Secondary damage caused by the inability to control consumption manifests itself in many ways. Alcoholism also has important social costs for both alcoholics and their families and friends. Alcoholism can cause side effects mental health psychiatric causes for development. Approximately 18 percent of alcoholics commit suicide. Research has found that over Fifty percent of suicides are related to alcohol or drug addiction. In adolescents the figure is higher with the abuse of alcohol or drugs play a role up to 70 percent of suicides.
The physical health effects
The physical health effects associated with alcohol consumption may include cirrhosis, pancreatitis, epilepsy, polyneuropathy, alcoholic dementia, heart disease, greater likelihood of cancer, nutritional deficiencies, sexual dysfunction, and death from many sources. Severe cognitive problems are not uncommon in alcoholics. Approximately 10% of cases of dementia related to alcohol what alcohol second cause of dementia. Other adverse effects on physical health include increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease, malabsorption, liver disease alcoholic and cancer. The damage to the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system can occur by sustained alcohol consumption.
Mental health effects
Misuse long period of alcohol can cause a wide range of effects on mental health. Alcohol abuse is not only toxic to the body but also for brain function and is both psychological well-being may be adversely affected by long-term effects of abuse. Psychiatric disorders are common in alcoholics, especially anxiety disorders and depression, with up to 25% of alcoholics with severe psychiatric disorders. Typically these psychiatric symptoms caused by abuse of alcohol initially worsen during alcohol withdrawal but with abstinence these psychiatric symptoms usually improve gradually or disappear altogether. Psychosis, confusion and organic brain syndrome may be induced by chronic alcohol abuse can lead to misdiagnosis major mental health disorders such as schizophrenia. Panic disorder can develop as a direct result of alcohol abuse long term. Panic Disorder It may also worsen or occur as part of alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Chronic alcohol abuse can cause panic disorder to develop or worsen a condition underlying panic through the distortion of the neurochemical system in the brain.
The coexistence of major depressive disorder and alcoholism is well documented. Among those with concomitant events, a distinction is commonly drawn between depressive episodes are secondary to pharmacological or toxic effects of use Excessive alcohol and remit with abstinence, and depressive episodes that are primary and not remit with abstinence. Additional use of other drugs may increase the risk of depression in alcoholics. Depressive episodes with an onset before drinking to excess or those still in the absence of excessive alcohol consumption is often referred to as "independent" episodes, while those that appear to be etiologically related to excessive alcohol consumption are called "substance-induced." There is a high suicide rate in chronic alcoholics with the risk of suicide increase the time a person drinks. The reasons for believing that cause increased risk of suicide in alcoholics are long-term abuse of alcohol causes a distortion of physiological brain chemistry and social isolation is common in alcoholics. Suicide is also very common in adolescents who abuse alcohol, with 1 in 4 teen suicides being related to alcohol abuse.
Social effects
The social problems arising from alcoholism can be massive and are caused in part due to the severe pathological changes induced in the brain of prolonged alcohol abuse and in part due to the intoxicating effects of alcohol. Alcohol abuse is also associated with an increased risk of committing crimes, including child abuse, domestic violence, rape, robberies and assaults. Alcoholism is associated with job loss, which can lead to financial problems, including homelessness. Drinking at inappropriate times, and behavior caused by the reduced sentence, can lead to legal consequences, such as charges for drunk driving or public disorder, or fines for willful misconduct. An alcoholic's behavior and mental disabilities drunk can profoundly affect those around them and lead to isolation fromfamily and friends, possibly leading a civil conflict and divorce, or contributing to domestic violence. This may contribute to loss of self esteem and even lead to jail. Alcoholism also can lead to neglect, with subsequent lasting damage on the emotional development of children alcohol, even after reaching adulthood.
Withdrawal Alcohol
Main article: Alcohol withdrawal syndrome
Alcohol withdrawal is very different from most other drugs, which can be directly fatal. For example, it is extremely rare withdrawal from heroin to be fatal. When people die of withdrawal from heroin or cocaine tend to have serious health problems underlying aggravated by acute withdrawal effort. An alcoholic, however, has no serious health problems, has a significant risk of dying from the direct effects of withdrawal if not properly managed. Sedatives and hypnotics such as barbiturates and benzodiazepines that have a similar mechanism of action alcohol (Which is also a sedative hypnotic) also have a similar risk of causing death during the withdrawal.
Main effect of alcohol is the increased stimulation GABA receptor, the promotion of central nervous system depression. With the repeated consumption of alcohol abuse, these receptors are insensitive and reduced in number, resulting in tolerance and physical dependence. Thus, when alcohol is stopped, especially abrupt, nervous system of the person suffering from uncontrolled firing synapses. This can result in symptoms such as anxiety, life-threatening crisis, delirium tremens and hallucinations, tremors and possible heart failure.
Symptoms Acute withdrawal tend to decrease after one to three weeks. Less severe symptoms (eg, insomnia and anxiety, anhedonia) can continue as part of a withdrawal message to improve gradually with abstinence for a year or more. Withdrawal symptoms begin to decrease in the body and central nervous system making adaptations to reverse tolerance and restoration of normal GABA function. Other neurotransmitter systems are involved, especially glutamate and NMDA.
Diagnosis
Multiple tools are available for those wishing to carry out the detection of alcoholism. The identification consists of a objective assessment of the damage that drinking alcohol makes the drinker's life compared to the subjective benefits the drinker perceives from consuming alcohol. While there are many cases where an alcoholic's life has been significantly and obviously damaged, there are always extreme cases can be difficult to classify.
Addiction Specialists have extensive medical training on the diagnosis and treatment of patients with alcoholism.
Projection
Several tools can be used to detect a loss of control of alcohol consumption. These tools are mostly self reports in questionnaire form. Another common theme is the score or number that summarizes overall severity of alcohol consumption.
The CAGE questionnaire, named for its four questions, is an example that can be used to screen patients quickly in the doctor's office.
Two "yes" responses indicate that the defendant should be investigated further. The questionnaire asks the following questions:
Did you feel you need to reduce their alcohol consumption?
People Annoyed you by criticizing your drinking?
Have you ever felt guilty about your drinking?
Have you ever felt you needed a drink in the morning (revelation) to steady your nerves or get rid of a hangover?
The CAGE questionnaire has shown highly effective in detecting alcohol-related problems, however, has limitations in people with less severe alcohol problems related to women white college students.
Alcohol Dependence Questionnaire Data is a diagnostic test more sensitive than the CAGE test. It helps distinguish a diagnosis alcohol dependence from one of heavy alcohol consumption.
The Michigan Alcohol Screening Test (MAST) is a screening tool for alcoholism widely used by the courts to determine the appropriate sentence for people convicted of alcohol-related offenses, driving under the influence is the most common.
The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) is a screening questionnaire established by the World Health Organization. This test is the only has been validated in six countries and is used internationally. Like the CAGE questionnaire, which uses a simple set of questions - a high score to win an inquiry deeper.
The Paddington Alcohol Test (PAT) is designed to detect alcohol-related problems between accidents and to assist departments emergency. Which agrees well with the AUDIT questionnaire but is administered by a fifth time.
Evidence of genetic predisposition
Psychiatric geneticists John I. Nurnberger, Jr. and Laura Jean Bierut suggests that alcoholism does not have a single causencluding geneticut that genes play an important role "by affecting processes in the body and brain that interact with an individual's life experiences to produce protection or susceptibility. "They also report that less than one dozen alcohol-related, genes have been identified, but is more likely to wait to be discovered.
At least one genetic test exists an allele is related to alcohol and opiates. Human dopamine receptor genes have a detectable variation referred to as the DRD2 TaqI polymorphism. Those who have the A1 allele (variation) of this polymorphism have a small but significant tendency to addiction to opiates and endorphin releasing drugs like alcohol. A Although this allele is slightly more common in alcoholics and opiate addicts, is not itself an adequate predictor of alcoholism, and some researchers argue that evidence for DRD2 is contradictory.
DSM diagnosis
The DSM-IV diagnosis of alcohol dependence represents one approach to the definition alcoholism. In part, this is to aid in the development of research protocols in which the results can be compared with each other. According to the DSM-IV diagnosis alcohol dependence is as follows:
... Alcohol maladjustment to clinically significant impairment as manifested by at least three of the following within a one-year period: tolerance, withdrawal, taken in larger amounts or longer course than expected, the desire or unsuccessful attempts to cut down or control use, large amount of time spent obtaining, using, or recovering from use, social, occupational or recreational activities abandoned or reduced, continued use despite knowledge of physical or psychological consequences.
Urine and blood
There is reliable evidence for the actual use of alcohol, a common test is that the blood alcohol content (BAC). These tests do not differentiate alcoholics from nonalcoholics, however, long-term excessive alcohol consumption has a recognizable effect on the body, including:
Macrocytosis (enlarged MCV) 1
Elevated GGT
Moderate elevation of AST and ALT and AST an ALT ratio of 2:1.
High carbohydrate deficient transferrin (CDT)
However, none of these blood tests for biomarkers as sensitive as screening questionnaires.
Prevention
Because disorders alcohol are perceived as affecting society as a whole, the World Health Organization, the European Union and other regional bodies, national governments and parliaments have formed alcohol policies in order to reduce the harm of alcoholism.
To combat the health, social and low performance school resulting from alcohol dependence or drug abuse for adolescents and young adults, is considered an important step in reducing damage from alcohol abuse. The age of legal drugs like alcohol abuse can be purchased, and prohibit or restrict the advertising of alcohol has been recommended. Credibility and evidence based on units educational media on the effects of alcohol and other drugs has also been recommended. Guidelines for parents on alcohol and drug use during the targeting adolescents and youth mental health problems has also been suggested to prevent damage from alcohol and other drugs.
Administration
Treatments for alcoholism (antidipsotropic) are very varied because there are multiple perspectives of the condition itself. Those who approach alcoholism as a medical condition recommend different treatments or disease, for example, those who approach the condition as one of social choice.
Most treatments focus on helping people discontinue their alcohol consumption, followed by training for living and / or social support to help them resist a return to alcohol consumption. Post that alcoholism involves multiple factors that lead a person to continue drinking, they must all be addressed in order to successfully prevent a relapse. An example of this type of treatment is detoxification followed by a combination of supportive therapy, attendance at self-help groups and ongoing development of coping mechanisms. The community treatment for alcoholism typically supports an abstinence-based approach of zero tolerance, however, there are some who promote a harm reduction approach well.
Effectiveness
In considering the effectiveness of treatment options, consider the success rate based on those who enter a program, not only those who complete. Since the completion of a training program for success, success among those who complete a program usually near 100%. Also is important to consider not only the rate of reaching treatment goals but the rate of relapses. The results also should be compared with the rate about 5% in people quit on their own. A year after completing a rehabilitation program, about one third of alcoholics are sober, 40 percent are substantially improved but still drink heavily on occasion, and a quarter have completely relapsed.
Detoxification
Main article: alcohol detox
Alcohol detoxification or 'detox' for alcoholics is an abrupt stop of alcohol consumption, along with the replacement of drugs with similar effects to prevent alcohol withdrawal.
Detoxification treats the physical effects of prolonged use of alcohol, but not actually treat alcoholism. After detox is complete, relapse is likely without further treatment. These rehabilitations (or "centers rehabilitation) can take place in a hospital or clinic.
Group therapy and psychotherapy
A regional service center of Alcoholics Anonymous.
After detoxification, various forms of group therapy or psychotherapy can be used to treat underlying psychological problems that are related addiction to alcohol, as well as provide relapse prevention skills.
The mutual aid group counseling approach is one of the most common to help alcoholics stay sober. Many organizations have been formed to provide this service. Alcoholics Anonymous was the first group, and has more members than the other programs combined. Some of the others include LifeRing Secular Recovery, Rational Recovery, SMART Recovery, Women for sobriety.
Rationing and moderation
Rationing and moderation programs such as Moderation Management and DrinkWise not require total abstinence. Although Most alcoholics are not able to limit their alcohol consumption In this way, some return to moderate drinking. A 2002 U.S. study by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) showed that 17.7% of individuals diagnosed as alcohol dependent more than a year before returning to low-risk drinking. This group, however, showed fewer initial symptoms of dependence. A follow-up, using the same themes that were considered in remission in the period 2001-2002, examined the rates of return to alcohol problems in the period 2004-2005. The study found that abstinence from alcohol was the most stable form of remission of recovering alcoholics. In the long term (60 years) follow-up of two groups of male alcoholics concluded that "re-take control rarely persists more than a decade without relapse or evolution into abstinence. "
Medications
A variety of drugs can be prescribed as a treatment for alcoholism.
The drugs currently in use
Antabuse (disulfiram) prevents the elimination of acetaldehyde, a chemical the body produces when breaking down ethanol. Acetaldehyde is the cause of many symptoms of alcohol hangover. The overall effect is severe discomfort when alcohol is ingested: an extremely hungover uncomfortable quick and lasting action. This discourages an alcoholic from drinking in significant amounts, while taking the drug. A recent study of 9 years study found that the incorporation of supervised disulfiram and carbamide compound related to a comprehensive treatment program resulted in an abstinence rate of more 50%.
Temposil (calcium carbimide) works the same way as Antabuse, but is weaker and more secure [citation needed].
Naltrexone is an antagonist competitive opioid receptors, blocking our ability to use endorphins and opiates. Alcohol causes the body to release endorphins, therefore, when naltrexone drinkers body is no longer receiving any pleasure from consuming alcohol. Naltrexone is used in two very different forms of treatment. The first treatment uses naltrexone to decrease alcohol anxiety and promote abstinence. The other treatment, called pharmacological extinction, combines naltrexone with normal drinking habits in order to reverse endorphin conditioning that causes alcohol addiction. This translates into a decreased desire to drink, which persists after the use of naltrexone is broken, always and when the patient always has the naltrexone before drinking.
Naltrexone comes in two forms. Oral naltrexone (initially, but is no longer available as the brand ReVia) is a pill that should be taken an hour before drinking to be effective. Vivitrol is an extended release formulation is injected in the buttocks once a month.
Acamprosate (also known as Campral) is thought to stabilize the brain's chemical balance that otherwise would be affected by alcoholism. The Administration Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved this drug in 2004, saying: "While its mechanism of action is unknown, it is believed that Campral acts on the brain pathways related to alcohol abuse ... Campral proved superior to placebo in maintaining abstinence for a short period of time ... "The COMBINE study was unable to demonstrate the efficacy of acamprosate.
Experimental drugs
Many experimental drugs currently in clinical trials for treatment of alcoholism. Promising results were obtained with anticonvulsant drugs commonly used to treat epilepsy.
Topiramate (brand name Topamax) a derivative of the naturally occurring sugar monosaccharide D-fructose, has proven effective in helping alcoholics quit or reduce the amount they drink. In a study of heavy drinkers were six times more likely to maintain abstinence for a month if they took the medication, even in small doses. In another study, those receiving topiramate, fewer days of heavy drinking, drinks per day and more days of continuous abstinence than those receiving placebo. Evidence suggests that topiramate antagonizes excitatory glutamate receptors, inhibits dopamine release and enhances inhibitory gamma-aminobutyric acid function. A 2008 review of the topiramate effectiness concluded that the results of published trials are promising, however at this time, the data are insufficient to support the use of topiramate in brief counseling combined with compliance of the week as a first line agent for alcohol dependence.
Drugs that can worsen the outcome
Benzodiazepines, while useful in managing acute alcohol withdrawal, if long-term use causes a worse outcome in alcoholism. Chronic alcoholics benzodiazepines have a lower rate of achieving abstinence from alcohol than those not taking benzodiazepines. This class of drugs commonly prescribed to alcoholics for insomnia or anxiety management. Start the prescriptions of benzodiazepines or sedative hypnotics in individuals in recovery has a high rate of relapse one of the authors of reports of more than a quarter of people relapse after being prescribed sedative-hypnotics. Patients often mistakenly think they are sober despite continuing to take benzodiazepines. Those who are long-term users of benzodiazepines should not be removed quickly, the inclination regimes of 612 months were found to be the most successful, with less intensity of withdrawal.
Dual addictions
The AMA definition of alcoholism refers to an entity a disease that affects the compulsive use of alcohol despite social, physical and mental damage. [Citation needed]. The definition of the DSM-IV alcohol dependence refers alcohol only, and the DSM-IV sedatives used to refer to a disease entity alcohol nonsedating. [Citation needed]
Alcoholics also may require treatment of other psychotropic drug addiction. The most common dual addiction to alcohol dependence is a dependence on benzodiazepines Studies Showing 10 to 20% of people dependent on alcohol are problems of dependency problems and / or misuse of benzodiazepines. Alcohol itself is a sedative hypnotic and cross-tolerance with other sedative-hypnotics such as barbiturates, benzodiazepines and nonbenzodiazepines. The dependence of other sedative-hypnotics such as zolpidem and zopiclone and opioids and illegal drugs is common in alcoholics. Dependence and withdrawal from sedative-hypnotics, such as abstinence of benzodiazepines is similar to alcohol and can be medically severe and include the risk of psychosis and seizures if not properly managed. Benzodiazepine dependency requires a careful dose reduction to avoid a withdrawal syndrome of benzodiazepines and health consequences. Benzodiazepines have the problem of rising anxiety problem alcohol drinkers. Benzodiazepines also increase the volume of alcohol consumed by problem drinkers.
Epidemiology
Adjusted Disability-year life of alcohol use disorders per 100,000 inhabitants in 2002.
no data less than 50 50-150 150-250 250-350 350-450 450-550 550-650 650-750 750-850 850-950 950-1050 over 1050
Total alcohol consumption per capita annual registration (15 +), in liters of pure alcohol
Substance abuse is a public health problem facing many countries. "The most common substance abuse / dependence in patients presenting for treatment is alcohol." In the UK, the number of "dependent drinkers" is calculated as more than 2.8 million in 2001. The World Health Organization estimates that about 140 million people around the world suffer from alcohol dependence. In the United States and Western Europe 10 to 20% of men and 5 to 10% of women at some point in their lives meet the criteria for alcoholism.
Within the medical and scientific community, there is broad consensus regarding alcoholism as a disease state. For example, the Association American Medical considers alcohol a drug and claims that "drug addiction is a chronic, relapsing disease of the brain characterized by the compulsive search and drug use despite often devastating consequences. It results from a complex interplay of biological vulnerability, environmental exposure, and development factors (eg, stage of maturity of the brain). "
Current evidence indicates that men and women, alcoholism is 50-60% genetically determined, leaving 40-50% of environmental influences.
A 2002 study by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism surveyed a group of 4422 adults who meet the criteria for alcohol dependence and found that after a year, some met the criteria of the authors of low-risk drinking, although that only 25.5% of the treatment group received, broken down as follows:
25% still rely on
27.3% in partial remission (some the symptoms persist)
11.8% asymptomatic drinkers (consumption increases chances of relapse)
35.9% fully recovered compound low risk, 17.7% from 18.2% abstinent drinkers.
In contrast, however, the results of long-term (60 years) follow-up of two groups of men George Vaillant alcoholics at Harvard Medical School noted that "re-take control rarely persists for more than a decade without relapse or progression to abstinence. "Vaillant also noted that" controlled drinking again, as reported in short term studies, it is often a mirage. "
History
Etymology
1904 ad describing alcoholism as a disease.
The term "alcoholism" was first used in 1849 by Swedish physician Magnus Huss to describe the adverse systemic effects of alcohol.
In the United States, the use of the word "alcoholism" was popularized for much of the foundation and growth of Alcoholics Anonymous in 1935 [citation needed]. AA's basic text, known as the "Big Book" describes alcoholism as a disease involving a physical allergy, mental obsession and p.xxviii. p.23 Note that the definition of "allergy" is used in this context is not the same as that used in modern medicine. . The physician and addiction specialist Dr. William D. Silkworth MD writes on behalf of AA Alcoholics suffer a '(physical) desire beyond mental control. "
A 1960 study by E. Morton Jellinek is considered the foundation of the theory of disease modern alcoholism. Jellinek definition restricted the use of the word "alcoholism" to those who show a particular natural history. The medical definition modern alcoholism has been revised several times since. The American Medical Association currently uses the word alcoholism to refer to a chronic in particular primary illness.
A minority opinion within the field, in particular, advocated by Stanton Peele and Fingarette Herbert, argue against the existence alcoholism as a disease. Critics of the model of the disease tend to use the term "binge drinking" when discussing the negative effects consumption of alcohol.
Society and Culture
The number of health problems associated with alcohol consumption in the long run are generally perceived as detrimental to society, For example, money due to lost work hours, medical expenses, and costs of secondary treatment. Alcohol is a major contributing factor to injury head, car accidents, violence and aggression. Beyond money, there is the pain and suffering of those affected, as well alcohol. For example, consumption of alcohol by a pregnant woman can cause fetal alcohol syndrome, an incurable and damaging.
Estimates of economic costs of alcohol abuse, collected by the World Health Organization, vary from one to six percent of the GDP of a country. An estimate of Australia set the social costs of alcohol in 24 percent of all drug abuse costs, a similar Canadian study concluded alcohol was shared by 41 percent.
A study quantifies the cost to the UK of all forms of alcohol abuse and 18,520 million dollars a year (figures from 2001).
Stereotypes
Representation town drunk or a drunk
Stereotypes of alcoholics are often found in fiction and popular culture. The "town drunk" is a typical character Western popular culture.
Stereotypes of drunkenness may be based on racism or xenophobia, as in the representation of the Irish as heavy drinkers.
Studies by social psychologists and Stivers Greeley attempted to document the perceived prevalence of binge drinking among the Irish in America.
Alcohol-related crime
See also: Drug-related crime
This section may require cleanup to meet quality standards Wikipedia. Please improve this section if possible. (July 2009)
Of the U.S. adult population, at least 75% are drinkers, and about 6% of total group are alcoholics. In groups that drinkers are almost 100%, the rate of alcoholism is approximately 8%. Many reports claim that about 73% of offenses with alcohol. A survey shows that about 67% of cases of beatings of children, 41% of rape cases, 80% of wife-beating, 72% of stab wounds and 83% of homicides, whether the perpetrator or victim or both had been drinking. "
In film and literature
In modern times, the movement recovery has led to a more realistic representation of the problems arising from excessive use of alcohol. Authors such as Charles R. Jackson and Charles Bukowski describe their own alcohol addiction in their writings. The disjointed narrative Square Patrick Hamilton hangover reflects the main character's alcoholism. The famous of alcoholism, and psychology of an alcoholic, is on the acclaimed novel by Malcolm Lowry's Under the Volcano, which details the last day of the British consul Geoffrey Firmin's Day of the Dead in Mexico 1939 and its decision to proceed with extreme alcohol consumption instead of returning to the woman he loves.
Movies like Bad Santa, Barfly, Days of wine and roses, Ironweed, My name is Bill W., Withnail and I, Arthur, Leaving Las Vegas, when a man loves a woman, broken spirits and stories of lost weekend similar chronic alcoholism.
Women and Alcohol
Alcoholism has a higher prevalence among men, although in recent decades, the proportion of alcoholic women has increased. It is important to coordinate the various biological and social forms alcoholism manifests itself in women to understand the barriers to treatment and effective recovery strategies.
Lane, William Hogarth Gin, 1751.
The biological differences and the physiological effects
Biologically, profiles of women have symptoms of alcohol consumption differ in important ways from men. Experience a telescoping of the physiological effects of consumption alcohol. Equal doses of alcohol consumed by men and women generally are in women who have higher levels of blood alcohol (BAC). This can be attributed for many reasons, the main one is that women have less body water than men. A certain amount of alcohol, thus becomes more highly concentrated in the body of a woman. Besides this fact, women are more intoxicated, which is due to the release of hormones.
Women develop complications long-term alcohol dependence more rapidly than male alcoholics. In addition, women have a higher mortality rate due to alcoholism than men. Examples of long-term complications include brain, heart and liver damage and increased risk of breast cancer (see alcohol and breast cancer). In addition, Excessive alcohol consumption over time has shown a negative effect on reproductive function in women. This results in reproductive dysfunction such as anovulation, decreased ovarian mass, irregular menstruation, amenorrhea, luteal phase dysfunction, and early menopause.
The psychological and emotional
Psychiatric disorders are generally more prevalent among people with alcohol disorders. This is true for both men and women, however, the disorders vary in terms of gender. Women with alcohol use disorders often have other psychiatric diagnosis such as depression, anxiety, panic, bulimia, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), or borderline personality disorder. Men with alcohol use disorders more often have other disorders, the diagnosis of narcissistic and antisocial personality, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, impulse disorders and attention deficit disorder / hyperactivity.
Women with alcoholism are also more likely to have a history of physical or sexual assault, abuse and domestic violence in the population general. This trauma can lead to higher levels of PTSD, depression, anxiety, and greater dependence on alcohol.
Social barriers to treatment
The social attitudes and stereotypes about women and alcohol can create barriers to detecting and treating women who abuse alcohol. These stigmatizing beliefs women who drink characterized as "in general and sexually immoral" or "fallen women". The fear of stigma can lead to deny women who are suffering from a medical condition, to hide their drinking, and drinking alone. This model, in turn, bring the family, doctors and others who are less likely to suspect that a woman they know is an alcoholic.
By contrast, attitudes and social stereotypes about men and alcohol can reduce barriers to screening and treating men who abuse alcohol. Such beliefs of men who drink reward for characterizing them as "in general and sexual morality" or "man up." Reduced fear of stigma can lead men to recognize that they are suffering from a medical condition, to showcase their drinking, and drinking in groups. This model, in turn, bring the family, doctors and others who are more likely to suspect that a man they know is an alcoholic. Women also tend to have a greater fear that the negative consequences of the stigma that a bad image of their families. This may also avoid seeking help.
Implications treatment
Research has indicated the lack of adequate training of professionals in both problematic alcohol use in general and in relation to issues of women. The complexity of alcohol use disorders, especially in gender issues, indicates that the need for professionals in the knowledge, understanding and Compassion is enormous. Better education and awareness about the gender implications of alcoholism will help care providers to adequately treat women who suffer from alcoholism. Early intervention also increases the likelihood of recovery.
See also
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: alcoholism
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Alcoholism
Alcohol and health
Alcoholism in family systems
Alcohol dementia
Alcohol-related traffic accidents
Alcohol tolerance
Alcohol Withdrawal
Alcoholic disease pulmonary
Excessive drinking
List of countries by alcohol consumption
Alcohol intoxication
E. Morton Jellinek
The metabolism of ethanol analysis biochemistry of alcohol metabolism
Handbook on Alcohol and Drug Abuse
Hangover
List of deaths by alcohol
Substance Abuse
Self-medication
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
Willingway hospital
The medical diagnosis to detect alcohol
Alcohol content in blood
Count Complete blood
Liver function tests
Al-Anon and Alateen: Support groups for friends and families affected by alcoholism
References
^ American Medical Association "Definitions"
^ Www.dictionary.com Definition: dipsomania
^ Glavas MM, Weinberg J (2006). "Stress, alcohol, and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis." Yehuda S, Mostofsky DI. Nutrients, stress and medical disorders. Totowa, New Jersey: Humana Press. 165 183 pp. ISBN 978-1-58829-432-6.
^ Agarwal-Kozlowski, K., Agarwal, DP. (April 2000). "[Genetic predisposition for alcoholism]." There Umsch 57 (4): 17,984. PMID 10804873.
^ Chen, CY;. Storr, CL;. Anthony, JC. (Mar 2009). "Early onset of drug use and the risk of dependency issues drugs.. "behavior Addict 34 (3): 31,922. doi: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2008.10.021. PMID 19022584.
^ Vodka kills as many Russians as a war, according to a report Lancet. Times Online. June 27, 2009.
^ Morse RM, Flavin DK (August 1992). "The definition of alcoholism. Joint Committee. The National Council Alcoholism and Drug Dependence and the American Society of Addiction Medicine to study the definition and criteria for the diagnosis of alcoholism, "JAMA: the journal American Medical Association 268 (8): 10,124. doi: 10.1001/jama.268.8.1012. ISSN 0098-7484. PMID 1501306.
Abc ^ VandenBiesen, Gary R. (July 15, 2006). APA dictionary of psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ISBN 978-1-59147-380-0. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=OSoZAQAAIAAJ.
^ From Dictionaries American Heritage, editors (April 12, 2006). The Dictionary of Real English language (4 ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-70172-8. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=uPCFIQAACAAJ. "To use wrongly or badly, misuse, abuse of alcohol"
^ "Dietary Guidelines for Americans 2005." U.S.: health.gov. 2005. http://www.health.gov/DIETARYGUIDELINES/dga2005/document/html/chapter9.htm. Dietary Guidelines]
^ Grant, BF;. Dawson, DA. (1997). "The age of onset of alcohol use and its association with alcohol abuse in DSM-IV and dependence: Results from the National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic Survey "J Subst Abuse 9: 10,310 .. doi:. 10.1016/S0899-3289 (97) 90009-2 PMID 9494942 ..
Ab ↑ "Early age at first drink May Modify Tween / Teen risk of alcohol dependence." Medical News Today. September 21, 2009. Http: / / www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/164576.php.
^ Bowden, SC;. Crews, FT;. Bates, ME;. Fals-Stewart, W., Ambrose, ML. (February 2001). "Neurotoxicity and neurocognitive disorders with alcohol disorders and consumption of drugs: potential roles in addiction and recovery.. "Alcohol Clin Exp Res 25 (2): 31,721. doi: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2001.tb02215.x. PMID 11236849.
^ Bierut, LJ;. Schuckit, MA;. Hesselbrock, V., Reich, T. (2000). "Co-occurring risk factors for alcohol dependence and habitual smoking.". Alcohol Res Health 24 (4): 23,341. PMID 15986718.
^ Agrawal, Arpana, Sartor, Carolyn E.; Lynskey, Michael T., Grant, Julia D.; Pergadia, Michele L.; Grucza, Richard; Bucholz, Kathleen K., Nelson, Elliot C. et al. (2009). "The evidence of an interaction. Age at first drink and genetic influences on DSM-IV symptoms alcohol dependence, "Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 33:. 2047 doi: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01044.x.
^ Enoch, MA. (Dec 2006). "Influences genetic and environmental development of alcoholism: resilience to risk.. "Ann NY Acad Sci 1094: 193,201. doi: 10.1196/annals.1376.019. PMID 17347351.
Abc ^ McCully, Chris (2004). Goodbye, Mr. Wonderful. Alcohol, adding and early recovery .. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN 978-1-84310-265-6. http://www.jkp.com/catalogue/book/9781843102656/contents.
^ Dunn, N, Cook (March 1999). "Psychiatric aspects of alcohol abuse.". Hospital Medicine (London: 1998) 60 (3): 16,972. ISSN 1462-3935. PMID 10476237.
^ Wilson, Richard; Kolander, Cheryl A. (2003). Drug abuse: a school and community partnerships. Sudbury, Massachusetts: Jones and Bartlett. pp 4045. ISBN 978-0-7637-1461-1. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cm1MfcBSucUC.
^ Miller, NS, Mahler, Gold (1991). "Suicide risk associated with drugs and dependence on alcohol.. "Journal of Addictive Diseases 10 (3): 4961. doi: 10.1300/J069v10n03_06. ISSN 1055-0887. PMID 1932152.
Professor Georgy Bakalkin ab ↑ (July 8, 2008). "Alcoholism associated molecular adaptations in brain neurocognitive circuits." eurekalert.org. http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-07/econ-ma070808.php. Retrieved on February 14, 2009.
^ D Müller, RD Koch, von Specht H, Vlker W, MNCH EM (March 1985). "[The neurophysiological findings in chronic abuse alcohol] "(in German). Psychiatr Neurol Med Psychol (Leipz) 37 (3): 12,932. PMID 2988001.
Testino G ^ (2008). "Alcoholic disease hepato-gastroenterology at: a point of view "Hepatogastroenterology 55 (82-83):. .. 3717 PMID 18613369
^ Oscar-Berman, Marlene; Marinkovic, Ksenija (2003). "The Alcoholism and the brain: an overview. "Alcohol Res Health 27 (2): 12,533. PMID 15303622.
^ Wetterling T, Junghanns K (September 2000). "Psychopathology alcoholics during withdrawal and early abstinence. "EUR Psychiatry 15 (8): 4838. doi: 10.1016/S0924-9338 (00) 00519-8. ISSN 0924-9338. PMID 11175926.
Schuckit MA ^ (November 1983). "Alcoholism and psychiatric disorders," Hosp Community Psychiatry 34 (11): .. ISSN 0022-1597 PMID 6642446 10227 ..
^ Cowley DS (January 24, 1992). "The abuse of alcohol, substance abuse, and panic disorder" Am J Med 92 (1A): .. 41S48S doi: 10.1016/0002-9343 (92) 90136-Y ISSN PMID 1346485 0002-9343 ...
Cosci ^ F; Schruers, KR, Abrams, K; Griez, EJ (June 2007). "The alcohol use disorders and panic disorder: a review evidence of a direct relationship. "J Clin Psychiatry 68 (6): 87,480. doi: 10.4088/JCP.v68n0608. ISSN 0160-6689. PMID 17592911.
^ Grant BF, Harford TC (October 1995). "Comorbidity between DSM-IV alcohol consumption and major depression: results of a national survey." Drug Alcohol Depend 39 (3): 197206. doi: 10.1016/0376-8716 (95) 01160-4. ISSN 0376-8716. PMID 8556968. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0376871695011604.
^ Kandel DB, Huang years fiscal, Davies M (October 2001). "The patterns of comorbidity between substance dependence and psychiatric syndromes." Depends drugs Alcohol 64 (2): 23,341. doi: 10.1016/S0376-8716 (01) 00126-0. ISSN 0376-8716. PMID 11543993.
^ Cornelius JR, Bukstein O, Salloum I, Clark D (2003). "Alcohol and psychiatric comorbidity." Recent Dev Alcohol 16: 36174. doi: 10.1007/0-306-47939-7_24. ISSN 0738-422X. PMID 12638646.
Schuckit M ^ (June 1983). "The alcoholic patients with depression high school. "Am J Psychiatry 140 (6): 7114. ISSN 0002-953X. PMID 6846629. http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=6846629.
^ Schuckit MA, Tipp JE, Bergman M, Reich W, Hesselbrock VM, Smith TL (July 1997). "Comparison of induced and independent depressive disorders in 2945 alcoholics important." Am J Psychiatry 154 (7): 94,857. ISSN 0002-953X. PMID 9210745. http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=9210745.
Schuckit MA ^, Tipp JE, Bucholz KK (October 1997). "The lifetime rates of three mood disorders and four major anxiety disorders in alcoholics and controls." Addiction 92 (10): 1,289,304. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.1997.tb02848.x. ISSN 0965-2140. PMID 9489046.
Schuckit MA ^, Smith TL, Danko GP (November 2007). "A comparison of the factors associated with substance-induced depressions against independent. "J Stud Alcohol Drugs 68 (6): 80,512. ISSN 1937-1888. PMID 17960298.
^ O'Connor, Rory Sheehy, Noel (January 29, 2000). Understanding suicidal behavior. Leicester: BPS Books. pp 3337. ISBN 978-1-85433-290-5. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=79hEYGdDA3oC.
^ Isralowitz, Richard (2004). Drug use: a reference manual. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. 122 123 pp. ISBN 978-1-57607-708-5. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=X0mxxfbIbp4C.
^ Langdana, Farrokh K. (March 27, 2009). Macroeconomic Policy: Demystifying Monetary and Fiscal Policy (2 nd ed.). Springer. p. 81. ISBN 978-0-387-77665-1. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=GCYWQn79JYwC.
^ Gifford, Mary (October 22, 2009). Alcoholism (Biographies of Disease). Greenwood Press. 8991 pp. ISBN 978-0-313-35908-8. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=2OJV12astRUC.
^ Schad, Johannes Petrus (October 2006). The Complete Encyclopedia of Medicine and Health. Foreign Books Foreign media. 132 133 pp. ISBN 978-1-60136-001-4. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=j8DuEHxSCU4C.
^ Galanter, Marc, Kleber, Herbert D. (1 of July 2008). The American Textbook Publishing psychiatric treatment of substance abuse (4 th ed.). U.S.: American Psychiatric Publishing Inc. p. 58. ISBN 978-1585622764. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=6wdJgejlQzYC.
^ Dart, Richard C. (December 1, 2003). Medical Toxicology (3 rd ed.). USA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 139 140 pp. ISBN 978-0781728454. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=qDf3AO8nILoC.
Idemudia ^ SO, Bhadra S, Lal H (June 1989). "The interoceptive stimulus produced by pentylenetetrazol-like ethanol withdrawal is potentiated by bicuculline and picrotoxinin. "Neuropsychopharmacology two (2): 11522. doi: 10.1016/0893-133X (89) 90014-6. ISSN 0893-133X. PMID 2742726.
^ G Martinotti, Nicola, MD, Reina, D, Andreoli, S; Foc, F, Cunniff, A; Tonioni, F, Bria, P et al. (2008). "Alcohol withdrawal prolonged: the role of anhedonia." Subst Use Misuse 43 (3-4): 27,184. doi: 10.1080/10826080701202429. ISSN 1082-6084. PMID 18365930.
Stojek ^ A; Madejski, J; Dedelis, E, Janicki, K (May-June 1990). "[The correction of withdrawal symptoms late substances in the conjunctival administration of 5% homatropine solution (preliminary report)] "Psychiatr Pol 24 (3): 0033-2674 ISSN PMID 195201 .. 2084727 ..
^ Le Bon O, Murphy JR, Staner, L., Hoffmann, G; Kormoss, N; Kento, M, Dupont, P, Leon, K et al. (August 2003). "Double-blind, controlled placebo efficacy of trazodone in alcohol withdrawal syndrome after assessments and clinical polysomnography "J Clin Psychopharmacol 23 (4):. 37,783 doi: .. ISSN 0271-0749 PMID 12920414 10.1097/01.jcp.0000085411.08426.d3 ..
^ Sanna, E; Mostallino, Mc; Busonero, F; Talani, G, Tranquilli, S, Mameli M, Spiga, S; Follese, P et al. (December 17, 2003). "Changes in GABA (A) receptor gene expression associated with selective alterations in receptor function and pharmacology after ethanol withdrawal of "The Journal of Neuroscience:. the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience 23 (37): 1,171,124. ISSN 0270-6474. PMID 14684873. http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/23/37/11711.
Idemudia ^ SO, Bhadra S, Lal H (June 1989). "The pentylenetetrazol-like interoceptive stimulus produced by ethanol withdrawal is potentiated by bicuculline and picrotoxinin. "Neuropsychopharmacology two (2): 11,522. doi: 10.1016/0893-133X (89) 90014-6. PMID 2742726.
^ Chastain, G (October 2006). "Alcohol, neurotransmitter systems and behavior.". The Journal of General Psychology 133 (4): 32,935. doi: 10.3200/GENP.133.4.329-335. ISSN 0022-1309. PMID 17128954.
^ Ewing JA (October 1984). "The detection of alcoholism. The CAGE questionnaire." JAMA Magazine American Medical Association 252 (14): 19,057. doi: 10.1001/jama.252.14.1905. ISSN 0098-7484. PMID 6471323.
^ CAGE (PDF)
^ Dhalla, S.; Kopec, JA. (2007). "The questionnaire CAGE alcohol abuse: a review of studies of reliability and validity.". Clin Invest Med 30 (1): 33-41. PMID 17716538.
^ Alcohol Dependence Data Questionnaire (SADD)
^ Michigan Alcohol Screening Test (MAST)
^ AUDIT: The Alcohol Disorders Identification Test: Guidelines for Use in Primary Care
^ Smith, SG, Touquet R, Wright S, Das Gupta, N (September 1996). "The detection of alcohol misuse accident and emergency patients: the Paddington alcohol test (PAT). "Journal of emergency medicine (British Association of Emergency Medicine) 13 (5): 308,312. doi: 10.1093/alcalc/agh049. ISSN 1351-0622. PMID 8894853. PMC 1342761. Accessed 19/11/2006.
↑ ab Nurnberger, Jr., John I., and Bierut, Laura Jean. "The search the connections: Alcoholism and our genes. "Scientific American, April 2007, Vol 296, Issue 4.
^ New York Daily News (William Sherman) Test white gene addiction February 11, 2006
^ Berggren U, Fahlke C, Aronsson E (September 2006). "The DRD2 A1 allele Taqi associated with alcohol dependence, although its effect size is small "(Free full text). Alcohol and alcoholism (Oxford) 41 (5): 47,985. doi: 10.1093/alcalc/agl043. ISSN 0735-0414. PMID 16751215. http://alcalc.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/41/5/479.
^ Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM-IV. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. July 31, 1994. ISBN 978-0-89042-025-6. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=W-BGAAAAMAAJ.
^ Jones, AW. (2006). "Urine as a sample biological forensic analysis of alcohol and variability in the relationship of urine with blood.. "Rev Toxicol 25 (1): 15-35. PMID 16856767.
^ Das, SK;. Dhanya, L., Vasudevan DM. (2008). "Biomarkers of alcoholism: an updated review.". Scand J Clin Lab invest 68 (2): 81-92. doi: 10.1080/00365510701532662. PMID 17852805.
^ World Health Organization (2010). "Alcohol". http://www.who.int/topics/alcohol_drinking/en/.
^ "Alcohol policy in the WHO European region: current status and way forward" (PDF). World Health Organization. September 12 2005. http://www.euro.who.int/document/mediacentre/fs1005e.pdf.
^ Crews, F., He, J., Hodge, C. (Feb 2007). "Development of cortical teenager: a critical period of vulnerability to addiction.. "Pharmacol Biochem Behavior 86 (2): 18,999. doi: 10.1016/j.pbb.2006.12.001. PMID 17222895.
↑ ab KG: "Treatments of Psychiatric Disorders." Published by the American Psychiatric Association: 3rd edition, 2001, ISBN 0-88048-910-3
^ Smart RG (April 1976). "Spontaneous recovery in alcoholics: a review and analysis of available research." Drug and alcohol dependence 1 (4): 27,785. doi: 10.1016/0376-8716 (76) 90023-5. ISSN 0376-8716. PMID 797563.
^ Based on information from Dr. Mark Willenbring of the Institute National Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, in February 2007 issue of Newsweek - Adler, Jerry; Underwood, Anne; Kelley, Raina; Springen, Karen; Breslau, Karen. "Rehab Reality Check, "Newsweek, 19/02/2007, Vol. 149 Issue 8, p44-46, 3p, 4c
^ Dawson, Deborah A., Grant, Bridget F.; Stinson, Frederick S., Chou, Patricia S., Huang, Boji, Ruan, W. June (2005). "Recovery from DSM-IV alcohol dependence: United States, 2001-2002" Addiction 100 (3):. 281 doi: .. PMID 15733237 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00964.x http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh29-2/131-. 142.htm.
^ Dawson, Deborah A., Goldstein, Ris B., Grant, Bridget F. (2007). "Rates and correlates of relapse among individuals in remission from alcohol dependence DSM-IV: a 3-year follow-up." Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 31: 2036. doi: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2007.00536.x.
^ Vaillant, GE (2003). "A 60 year follow up of men alcoholics." Addiction (Abingdon, England) 98 (8): 104351. PMID 12873238.
^ Krampe H, Stawicki S, Wagner T (January 2006). "The follow-up of 180 alcoholic patients for up to 7 years after outpatient treatment:. impact of alcohol deterrents on outcome "Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research 30 (1):. 8695 doi:. ISSN 0145-6008 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2006.00013.x. PMID 16433735.
^ "FDA approves new drug for the treatment of alcoholism." http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/answers/2004/ANS01302.html. Accessed 02/04/2006. "
^ "The expert advice or alcohol naltrexone an effective treatment for alcohol dependence when delivered with treatment doctor ". 02/05/2006. http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/NewsEvents/NewsReleases/COMBINERelease.htm.
^ New treatments for alcoholism (from mouse to man)
^ Johnson BA, Ait-Daoud N, Bowden CL (May 2003). "Oral topiramate for treatment of alcohol dependence: a randomized controlled trial." Lancet 361 (9370): 167,785. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736 (03) 13370-3. ISSN 0140-6736. PMID 12767733.
^ Swift RM (May 2003). "Topiramate for treatment of addiction Alcohol: initiating abstinence. "Lancet 361 (9370): 16,667. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736 (03) 13378-8. ISSN 0140-6736. PMID 12767727.
^ Johnson BA, Rosenthal N, Capece JA (October 2007). "Topiramate for treating alcohol dependence: a randomized controlled trial" JAMA. Journal of the American Medical Association 298 (14) 164151 doi: .. ISSN 0098-7484 PMID 17925516 10.1001/jama.298.14.1641 http://jama.ama-assn ... org/cgi/content/full/298/14/1641.
^ CL Olmsted, DR Kockler (October 2008). "Topiramate for alcohol dependence." Ann Pharmacother 42 (10): 147,580. doi: 10.1345/aph.1L157. ISSN 1060-0280. PMID 18698008.
Lindsay ^, SJE, Powell, Graham E., eds (July 28, 1998). The Handbook of Adult Clinical Psychology (2 nd ed.). Routledge. p. 402. ISBN 978-0415072151. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=a6A9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA380.
^ Gitlow, Stuart (October 1, 2006). Substance use disorders: a practical guide (2 nd ed.). USA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 52 pp and 103121. ISBN 978-0781769983. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=rbrSdWVerBUC.
^ Johansson BA, Berglund M, M Hanson, C Phln, Persson I (November 2003). "The dependence on legal psychotropic drugs among alcoholics "(PDF). Alcohol. 38 (6): 6138. doi: 10.1093/alcalc/agg123. ISSN 0735-0414. PMID 14633651. http://alcalc.oxfordjournals.org/cgi / reprint/38/6/613.
^ CX Poulos, M Zack (November 2004). "Low-dose diazepam primes motivation for alcohol and alcohol-related semantic networks in drinkers problem "behavior Pharmacol 15 (7): .. 50,312 doi: 10.1097/00008877-200411000-00006 ISSN 0955-8810 PMID 15472572 ...
^ Global Status Report on the Alcohol 2004
Ab ↑ Cabinet Office Strategy Unit Alcohol Abuse: How Much? September 2003
^ WHO European Ministerial Conference on Young People and Alcohol
^ WHO to meet beverage company representatives to discuss health issues with alcohol
^ "Alcoholism". Encyclopdia Britannica.
^ Ab http://www.ama-assn.org/ama1/pub/upload/mm/388/sci_drug_addiction.pdf
^ Dick DM, Bierut LJ (April 2006). "The genetics of alcohol dependence. "Current Psychiatry Reports 8 (2): 1517. doi: 10.1007/s11920-006-0015-1. ISSN 1523-3812. PMID 16539893.
^ National Institute of Abuse Alcohol and Alcoholism 2001-2002 Survey finds that many recover from alcoholism release Press January 18, 2005.
^ Vaillant GE (August 2003). "A 60 years of follow-up of men alcoholics. "Addiction. 98 (8): 104351. Doi: 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00422.x. ISSN 0965-2140. PMID 12873238.
^ Alcoholismus chronic Chronisk eller alkoholssjukdom:. Stockholm und Leipzig. Accessed 02/19/2008.
Ab ↑ Anonymous, The first 100 members of AA (1939, 2001). [Www.aa.org Alcoholics Anonymous: the story of how many thousands of men and women have recovered from] alcoholism. New York: Alcoholics Anonymous Services world. xxxii, 575 p.. ISBN 1893007162. www.aa.org.
^ "The Big Book of Self Test". intoaction.us. http://www.intoaction.us/SelfTest.html. Accessed 02/19/2008.
^ Kay AB (2000). "Overview of allergy and allergic diseases: with a view to the future". Br Medical Bull. 56 (4): 84,364. doi: 10.1258/0007142001903481. ISSN 0007-1420. PMID 11359624.
^ "Alcoholics Anonymous" p XXVI
^ "October 22 deaths." todayinsci.com. http://www.todayinsci.com/10/10_22.htm. Accessed 02/18/2008.
^ CDC. (2004). Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Guidelines for referral and diagnosis. It can be downloaded at http://www.cdc.gov/fas/faspub.htm
^ Streissguth, A. (1997). Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: A guide for families and communities. Baltimore: Brooks Publishing. ISBN 1-55766-283-5.
^ "Report on the global situation on Alcohol 2004 "(PDF). World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/substance_abuse/publications/global_status_report_2004_overview.pdf. Accessed 03/01/2007.
^ "Economic cost of alcohol." World Health World Database of alcohol. Accessed 03/01/2007.
^ "Q & A: The costs of alcohol." BBC. 19/09/2003. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/3122244.stm.
^ "The World / Global Alcohol / Consumer Drinks 2007. "Http://www.finfacts.ie/Private/bestprice/alcoholdrinkconsumptionpriceseurope.htm.
^ "The drunks in the world: The Irish." Http: / / clippednews.wordpress.com/2007/03/14/the-worlds-drunks-the-irish /.
^ Stivers, Richard (2000). Hair of the Dog: Irish Drinking and American stereotype. London: Continuum. ISBN 0-8264-1218-1.
^ Http: / / www.enotalone.com/article/5540.html
Abc ^ Walter H., K. Gutierrez, Ramskogler K., Hertling I., A. Dvorak, Lesch OM (June 2003). "Gender-specific differences in alcoholism: implications for treatment." Archives Women's Mental Health 6: 253268. doi: 10.1007/s/00737-003-0014-8 (Off 04/04/2009).
Brad R. Abcdef Karrol ^ (2002). "Women and alcohol use disorders: a review important knowledge and its implications for social work professionals, "Journal of Social Work 2 (3): .. 337356 doi: 10.1177/146801730200200305 .... About the Author

I am China Manufacturers writer, reports some information about baby tricycle , toddler bibs.

Tutorial-Untethered iOS4.3.1 Jailbreak redsn0w + Preserve BB 1.59/2.10.4/3.10.01 iPhone4 Part 1

Men In Black: The Album

$2.00

Former Coen brothers cinematographer Barry Sonnenfeld has carved out a nice, if unlikely, niche as one of the '90s most consistently succesful directors (The Addams Family, Get Shorty), and the megahit alien spoof Men in Black only enhanced that reputation. The film's quirky MIB orchestral score by Danny Elfman is represented here by just two cuts; the feel-good hip-hop grooves of star Will Smith,...

WordPress Themes: How-to easily edit free WordPress blog themes yourself! (WordPress Blogging How-To Series)

There are more WordPress themes today than grains of sand on a beach. This is wonderful, but sometimes too many choices can lead to confusion. Using a free theme designed by someone other than WordPress might lead to incompatibility with widgets and plug-ins that you want to use. The biggest benefit to using the WordPress default theme, and customizing it yourself, is that the code is already as c...

WordPress Awards Guide 2012: The Ultimate Guide to The Best Tools & Options For Creating, Optimizing and Maximizing Your WordPress Website or Blog in 2012 (WordPress Awards Guides)

Welcome ladies and gentlemen! We're so honored to be your host![Insert bad joke here to break the ice and start the show.]We've done the grunt work for you and dissected all of the very best WordPress-compatible tools and resources across the web!We put them up head-to-head, award show style...Winner-Take-All...Because you don't need a dozen tools to get the same job done, do you? You just want to...

WordPress Power Guide - Using WordPress to Blog Your Way to Success - Blogging Guide

$3.97

Attention: New Book Intro Price -The Price of this Book will Increase to $9.97 Soon!WordPress Power Guide Go Beyond The Basics and Make Your WordPress Site Rock Are you already using WordPress on your website or blog? Ready to crank it up a notch and reap the maximum benefit from your site? Then the WordPress Power Guide is for you.Traffic GenerationWhether your goal is to make money from your sit...